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[class.mi]
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# 11 Classes [[class]](./#class)
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## 11.7 Derived classes [[class.derived]](class.derived#class.mi)
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### 11.7.2 Multiple base classes [class.mi]
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[1](#1)
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[#](http://github.com/Eelis/draft/tree/9adde4bc1c62ec234483e63ea3b70a59724c745a/source/classes.tex#L3683)
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A class can be derived from any number of base classes[.](#1.sentence-1)
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[*Note [1](#note-1)*:
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The use of more than one direct base class is often called multiple inheritance[.](#1.sentence-2)
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â *end note*]
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[*Example [1](#example-1)*: class A { /* ... */ };class B { /* ... */ };class C { /* ... */ };class D : public A, public B, public C { /* ... */ }; â *end example*]
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[2](#2)
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[#](http://github.com/Eelis/draft/tree/9adde4bc1c62ec234483e63ea3b70a59724c745a/source/classes.tex#L3697)
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[*Note [2](#note-2)*:
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The order of derivation is not significant except as specified by the
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semantics of initialization by constructor ([[class.base.init]](class.base.init "11.9.3 Initializing bases and members")),
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cleanup ([[class.dtor]](class.dtor "11.4.7 Destructors")), and storage
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layout ([[class.mem]](class.mem "11.4 Class members"), [[class.access.spec]](class.access.spec "11.8.2 Access specifiers"))[.](#2.sentence-1)
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â *end note*]
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[3](#3)
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[#](http://github.com/Eelis/draft/tree/9adde4bc1c62ec234483e63ea3b70a59724c745a/source/classes.tex#L3707)
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A class shall not be specified as a direct base class of a derived class
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more than once[.](#3.sentence-1)
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[*Note [3](#note-3)*:
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A class can be an indirect base class more than once and can be a direct
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and an indirect base class[.](#3.sentence-2)
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There are limited things that can be done
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with such a class;
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lookup that finds its non-static data members and member functions
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in the scope of the derived class will be ambiguous[.](#3.sentence-3)
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However, the static members, enumerations and types can be
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unambiguously referred to[.](#3.sentence-4)
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â *end note*]
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[*Example [2](#example-2)*: class X { /* ... */ };class Y : public X, public X { /* ... */ }; // errorclass L { public: int next; /* ... */ };class A : public L { /* ... */ };class B : public L { /* ... */ };class C : public A, public B { void f(); /* ... */ }; // well-formedclass D : public A, public L { void f(); /* ... */ }; // well-formed â *end example*]
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[4](#4)
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[#](http://github.com/Eelis/draft/tree/9adde4bc1c62ec234483e63ea3b70a59724c745a/source/classes.tex#L3734)
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A base class specifier that does not contain the keywordvirtual specifies a [*non-virtual base class*](#def:base_class,non-virtual "11.7.2 Multiple base classes [class.mi]")[.](#4.sentence-1)
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A base
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class specifier that contains the keyword virtual specifies a[*virtual base class*](#def:base_class,virtual "11.7.2 Multiple base classes [class.mi]")[.](#4.sentence-2)
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For each distinct occurrence of a
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non-virtual base class in the class lattice of the most derived class,
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the most derived object ([[intro.object]](intro.object "6.8.2 Object model")) shall contain a
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corresponding distinct base class subobject of that type[.](#4.sentence-3)
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For each
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distinct base class that is specified virtual, the most derived object
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shall contain a single base class subobject of that type[.](#4.sentence-4)
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[5](#5)
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[#](http://github.com/Eelis/draft/tree/9adde4bc1c62ec234483e63ea3b70a59724c745a/source/classes.tex#L3746)
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[*Note [4](#note-4)*:
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For an object of class type C, each distinct occurrence of a
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(non-virtual) base class L in the class lattice of C corresponds one-to-one with a distinct L subobject within the
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object of type C[.](#5.sentence-1)
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Given the class C defined above, an
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object of class C will have two subobjects of class L as
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shown in Figure [4](#fig:class.nonvirt)[.](#5.sentence-2)
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Figure [4](#fig:class.nonvirt) — Non-virtual base [[fig:class.nonvirt]](./fig:class.nonvirt)
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In such lattices, explicit qualification can be used to specify which
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subobject is meant[.](#5.sentence-3)
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The body of function C::f can refer to the
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member next of each L subobject:void C::f() { A::next = B::next; } // well-formed
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Without the A:: or B:: qualifiers, the definition ofC::f above would be ill-formed because of
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ambiguity ([[class.member.lookup]](class.member.lookup "6.5.2 Member name lookup"))[.](#5.sentence-5)
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â *end note*]
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[6](#6)
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[#](http://github.com/Eelis/draft/tree/9adde4bc1c62ec234483e63ea3b70a59724c745a/source/classes.tex#L3772)
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[*Note [5](#note-5)*:
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In contrast, consider the case with a virtual base class:class V { /* ... */ };class A : virtual public V { /* ... */ };class B : virtual public V { /* ... */ };class C : public A, public B { /* ... */ };
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Figure [5](#fig:class.virt) — Virtual base [[fig:class.virt]](./fig:class.virt)
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For an object c of class type C, a single subobject of
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type V is shared by every base class subobject of c that has avirtual base class of type V[.](#6.sentence-1)
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Given the class C defined above, an object of class C will have one subobject of
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class V, as shown in Figure [5](#fig:class.virt)[.](#6.sentence-2)
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â *end note*]
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[7](#7)
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[#](http://github.com/Eelis/draft/tree/9adde4bc1c62ec234483e63ea3b70a59724c745a/source/classes.tex#L3795)
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[*Note [6](#note-6)*:
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A class can have both virtual and non-virtual base classes of a given
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type[.](#7.sentence-1)
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class B { /* ... */ };class X : virtual public B { /* ... */ };class Y : virtual public B { /* ... */ };class Z : public B { /* ... */ };class AA : public X, public Y, public Z { /* ... */ };
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For an object of class AA, all virtual occurrences of
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base class B in the class lattice of AA correspond to a
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single B subobject within the object of type AA, and
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every other occurrence of a (non-virtual) base class B in the
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class lattice of AA corresponds one-to-one with a distinctB subobject within the object of type AA[.](#7.sentence-2)
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Given the
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class AA defined above, class AA has two subobjects of
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class B: Z's B and the virtual B shared
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by X and Y, as shown in Figure [6](#fig:class.virtnonvirt)[.](#7.sentence-3)
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Figure [6](#fig:class.virtnonvirt) — Virtual and non-virtual base [[fig:class.virtnonvirt]](./fig:class.virtnonvirt)
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â *end note*]
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